Exodus 21 -

An in-depth analysis of the laws and ordinances in the Book of Exodus 21, often referred to as “The Book of the Covenant,” reveals a fascinating look into the legal and social structure of ancient Israel. These laws, given to Moses on Mount Sinai, cover a wide range of topics from slavery and personal injury to property rights and restitution. This chapter provides a foundational understanding of justice and righteousness in the Old Testament.

Table of Contents

The Book of the Covenant: A Divine Legal Code

Exodus 21, part of the “Book of the Covenant” (Exodus 20:22–23:33), presents one of the Bible’s oldest legal codes. Unlike the Ten Commandments, it provides detailed case laws guiding Israel’s civil and religious life.

These laws are presented as a direct communication from God to Moses, intended to establish a just and equitable society. They reflect a deep concern for the vulnerable and a commitment to upholding the sanctity of life and property. These laws may seem harsh today, but in their time, they often protected slaves and the poor more than other codes.

Laws Concerning Servitude and Slavery

The chapter begins with a series of laws regarding slavery, which was a common practice in the ancient world. This form of slavery resembled indentured servitude more than later chattel slavery.

Regulations for Male Hebrew Servants

Term of Service: A Hebrew servant was to serve for a maximum of six years. In the seventh year, he was to be set free without payment. This provision was a significant departure from the practices of surrounding nations, where slavery was often a lifelong condition.
Marital Status: If a servant was already married, his wife was freed with him. If the master gave him a wife, she and their children remained the master’s property.
Voluntary Permanent Servitude: A servant could commit to lifelong service through a public ceremony, marked by ear piercing at a doorpost.

Regulations for Female Hebrew Servants

The laws for female servants, or more accurately, for daughters sold into servitude (often as a form of debt repayment), were different from those for men.

Not to be Freed Like Male Servants: A female servant was not automatically freed in the seventh year. This is because she was often intended to become a wife or concubine to the master or his son.
Protection Against Mistreatment: If the master was displeased with her, he could not sell her to a foreign person. He had to allow her to be redeemed by her family.
Rights as a Wife: If she was chosen as the master’s son’s wife, she had the same rights as a daughter. If the master took another wife, he could not reduce her food, clothing, or marital rights; failing this allowed her to leave freely without payment.

“An Eye for an Eye”: The Principle of Lex Talionis

One of the most famous and often misunderstood legal principles from Exodus 21 is the lex talionis, or “an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth.”

“But if there is serious injury, you are to take life for life, eye for eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, burn for burn, wound for wound, bruise for bruise.” (Exodus 21:23-25)

“Contrary to popular belief, this law promoted proportional justice through community judges, limiting retaliation and ensuring the punishment fit the crime.” In practice, this principle often led to monetary compensation for the damages incurred, rather than a literal, physical retribution.

Laws of Personal Injury and Restitution

The chapter goes on to detail various scenarios of personal injury and the corresponding penalties.

Capital Offenses: Premeditated murder, striking or cursing one’s parents, and kidnapping were all punishable by death.
Non-Lethal Injuries: If two men were fighting and one injured the other, the injurer was required to pay for the victim’s lost time and medical expenses.
Injuries to Slaves: A master who killed his slave was to be punished. If a master injured his slave, causing the loss of an eye or a tooth, the slave was to be set free as compensation. This was a radical idea in the ancient world, where slaves were often considered mere property with no legal rights.
Injuries to Pregnant Women: If a pregnant woman was harmed in a fight, causing premature birth, the offender was fined; serious injury to the woman or child invoked “life for life, eye for eye.”

Laws Concerning Animal Liability

The final section of Exodus 21 deals with the liability of an owner for damages caused by their animals, specifically an ox.

An Ox that Gores: If an ox gored someone to death, it was to be stoned and not eaten, and the owner was not liable.
A Known Dangerous Ox: If an ox known to gore isn’t confined despite warnings, its owner faces death, unless a ransom is paid.
An Ox that Kills a Slave: If an ox killed a slave, the owner paid thirty shekels to the slave’s master, and the ox was stoned.

Lasting Significance of Exodus 21

“Though Exodus 21’s laws aren’t directly applied today, their principles of justice and protection for the vulnerable have shaped Western law, reflecting God’s concern for life and a just, compassionate society.” They challenge us to consider how we can create a more just and equitable world for all people.